Use of Statistical Tools

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Summary

Chapter 8: Use of Statistical Tools

Summary

Statistical tools are essential for analyzing data in various economic activities.
The chapter covers the steps in designing a project and applying statistical tools for analysis.
Key steps include:
- Identifying a problem or area of study.
- Choosing a target group for data collection.
- Collecting data using primary or secondary methods.
- Organizing and presenting data through tabulation and diagrams.
- Analyzing data using measures of central tendency and dispersion.
- Drawing conclusions based on the analysis.

Key Formulas/Definitions

Questionnaire: A list of questions for respondents to answer.
Random Sampling: Selection method where each individual has an equal chance of being chosen.
Range: Difference between maximum and minimum values of a variable.
Relative Frequency: Frequency of a class as a proportion of total frequency.
Sampling Error: Difference between sample estimate and true population parameter.
Statistics: Method of collecting, organizing, presenting, and analyzing data.
Time Series: Data arranged in chronological order.
Weighted Average: Average calculated with different weights for data points.

Learning Objectives

Understand the steps in designing a project.
Apply statistical tools to analyze problems.
Collect and process data effectively.
Present data using appropriate methods.
Interpret results and draw meaningful conclusions.

Common Mistakes/Exam Tips

Ensure clarity in the objective of the study to avoid irrelevant data collection.
Choose the target group carefully to frame appropriate questions.
Be cautious of sampling methods to minimize errors.
Organize data systematically to facilitate analysis.

Important Diagrams

Bar Diagram: Used to show the influence of media on consumer awareness.
- Example: Families influenced by different media sources (Television, Newspaper, etc.).
Pie Diagram: Represents the distribution of toothpaste preferences among surveyed families.
- Example: Percentage of families satisfied with various toothpaste brands.

Suggested Projects

Assess transportation systems for improvement.
Study consumer awareness of product rights.
Analyze saving habits based on income and expenditure.
Evaluate health and sanitation issues in rural areas.

Learning Objectives

Understand the steps involved in designing a project.
Apply various statistical tools to analyze problems.
Identify a problem or area of study for investigation.
Choose an appropriate target group for data collection.
Collect data using primary and/or secondary methods.
Organize and present data effectively using tables and diagrams.
Analyze and interpret data to draw meaningful conclusions.

Detailed Notes

Use of Statistical Tools

Introduction

Statistical tools are essential for analyzing data related to economic activities such as production, consumption, distribution, banking, insurance, and trade.
The chapter focuses on developing a project to understand how statistical tools can be applied for various types of analysis.

Steps Towards Making a Project

Identifying a Problem or Area of Study

Clearly define the study objective.
Example areas of interest: production or sale of products (e.g., cars, mobile phones, soap), consumer awareness, or local utility issues.

Choice of Target Group

Important for framing appropriate questions in the questionnaire.
Example: For a car-related project, target middle and higher income groups.
For consumer products, target both rural and urban consumers.

Collection of Data

Determine if primary, secondary, or both methods are needed based on the survey objective.
Primary data can be collected through questionnaires or interviews.
Secondary data is useful when resources are limited.

Organisation and Presentation of Data

Process collected data through tabulation and suitable diagrams (e.g., bar diagrams, pie diagrams).

Key Statistical Terms

Questionnaire: A list of questions for respondents.
Random Sampling: A method where every individual has an equal chance of selection.
Sampling Error: The difference between sample estimate and true population value.
Statistics: The method of collecting, organizing, presenting, and analyzing data.
Time Series: Data arranged in chronological order.

Analysis and Interpretation

Use measures of central tendency (mean) and dispersion (standard deviation) to analyze data.
Draw meaningful conclusions and make predictions based on the analysis.

Sample Project Example

Project: Study consumer preferences for toothpaste.
Data Collection: Use a questionnaire to gather information on monthly expenditure, preferred brands, and customer attitudes.
Findings: Analyze data to identify trends and consumer preferences.

Conclusion

Clearly identify the study objective, choose the population and sample carefully, and prepare a questionnaire.
Analyze collected data using statistical tools to draw conclusions.

Exam Tips & Common Mistakes

Common Mistakes and Exam Tips

Common Pitfalls

Lack of Clarity in Objectives: Students often fail to clearly define the objective of their project, leading to irrelevant data collection.
Inappropriate Target Group Selection: Choosing the wrong target group can result in biased data that does not represent the population.
Improper Data Collection Methods: Using unsuitable methods for data collection (primary vs. secondary) can affect the reliability of the results.
Neglecting Data Organization: Failing to organize and present data effectively can lead to confusion and misinterpretation of results.
Ignoring Statistical Tools: Not applying appropriate statistical tools for analysis can result in incomplete conclusions.

Tips for Success

Define Clear Objectives: Ensure that the objectives of your project are specific and measurable to guide your data collection.
Choose the Right Target Group: Identify and select a target group that accurately reflects the population you are studying.
Select Appropriate Data Collection Methods: Decide whether to use primary or secondary data based on your project's needs and resources.
Organize Data Effectively: Use tables, charts, and diagrams to present data clearly and concisely.
Utilize Statistical Tools: Familiarize yourself with statistical tools and apply them appropriately to analyze your data and draw meaningful conclusions.

Practice & Assessment

Multiple Choice Questions

Mean

Median

Standard Deviation

Mode

Correct Answer: C

Solution:

Standard deviation is a measure of dispersion that indicates the variability or spread of data points around the mean, making it suitable for analyzing expenditure variability.

To analyze data related to production, consumption, and distribution

To design clothing

To create advertisements

To write novels

Correct Answer: A

Solution:

Statistical tools are used to analyze data related to economic activities such as production, consumption, and distribution.

Primary data collection

Secondary data collection

Census method

Sample survey method

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

Secondary data collection is preferred when resources are limited and information is easily available, as it involves using existing data rather than collecting new data.

Sample Survey Method

Census Method

Random Sampling

Structured Questionnaire

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

The Census Method involves collecting data from every individual in a population.

Mean

Median

Mode

Range

Correct Answer: C

Solution:

The mode is the statistical measure that identifies the most frequently occurring value in a dataset, which in this context would be the most commonly used brand of toothpaste.

Qualitative Classification

Spatial Classification

Chronological Classification

Quantitative Classification

Correct Answer: C

Solution:

Chronological Classification is used to arrange data based on time.

A list of open-ended questions

A list of questions with no possible answers provided

A list of closed-ended questions with alternative possible answers

A list of questions answered by the investigator

Correct Answer: C

Solution:

A structured questionnaire consists of closed-ended questions, for which alternative possible answers to choose from are provided.

Open-ended questions

Closed-ended questions

Leading questions

Hypothetical questions

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

A structured questionnaire consists mainly of closed-ended questions, which provide specific options for respondents to choose from, facilitating easier data analysis.

Secondary data collection

Random sampling

Sample survey method

Census method

Correct Answer: C

Solution:

The sample survey method involves collecting primary data through questionnaires or interviews from a representative sample.

The average of all values

The difference between the maximum and minimum values

The sum of all values

The frequency of a class

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

In statistics, the range is the difference between the maximum and minimum values of a variable.

Convenience sampling

Random sampling

Judgmental sampling

Snowball sampling

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

Random sampling ensures that every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected, thereby providing a representative sample of the population.

The number of times an observation occurs

The difference between the maximum and minimum values

Frequency of a class as a proportion of total frequency

The average value of a data set

Correct Answer: C

Solution:

Relative Frequency is the frequency of a class expressed as a proportion or percentage of the total frequency.

The error due to incorrect data entry

The numerical difference between the sample estimate and the true population parameter

The error caused by using a non-random sample

The error due to misinterpretation of data

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

Sampling error is the difference between the estimate from the sample and the true value of the parameter from the population.

Error due to biased data collection

Error due to incorrect data entry

Difference between sample estimate and true population parameter

Error due to non-response in surveys

Correct Answer: C

Solution:

Sampling error is the numerical difference between the estimate from the sample and the corresponding true value of the parameter from the population.

Structured questionnaire

Unstructured interviews

Random sampling survey

Secondary data analysis

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

Unstructured interviews allow for in-depth qualitative insights as they enable respondents to express their preferences and thoughts freely.

To collect and organize data

To draw meaningful conclusions

To increase production

To reduce costs

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

Statistical tools are used to analyze data and draw meaningful conclusions, which can help in understanding economic problems and suggesting improvements.

Use of open-ended questions only

Inclusion of both open-ended and closed-ended questions

Use of complex language to ensure clarity

Exclusion of demographic questions

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

Including both open-ended and closed-ended questions allows for detailed responses and easy analysis, making the data collection more effective.

A list of open-ended questions allowing detailed responses

A list of closed-ended questions with predefined answers

A set of questions that change based on previous answers

A questionnaire that includes both qualitative and quantitative questions

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

A structured questionnaire consists of closed-ended questions, where respondents choose from predefined answers, facilitating easier data analysis.

Absolute Frequency

Relative Frequency

Cumulative Frequency

Class Frequency

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

Relative frequency is the frequency of a class expressed as a proportion or percentage of the total frequency.

Random Sampling

Census Method

Stratified Sampling

Cluster Sampling

Correct Answer: A

Solution:

Random Sampling is a method where every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected as an informant, ensuring unbiased representation.

Number of students in a class

Height of students

Time taken to complete an exam

Temperature in a room

Correct Answer: A

Solution:

A discrete variable is a quantitative variable that takes only certain values. The number of students in a class is a discrete variable because it can only take whole number values.

To allow respondents to provide open-ended feedback

To ensure all respondents answer the same set of questions

To collect qualitative data

To increase the variability of responses

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

A structured questionnaire consists of closed-ended questions, ensuring that all respondents answer the same set of questions, which helps in standardizing the data collection process.

Class Interval

Class Mark

Class Frequency

Class Limit

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

The Class Mark is the middle value of a class, calculated as the average of the upper and lower class limits.

Pie Diagram

Bar Diagram

Line Graph

Histogram

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

A Bar Diagram is suitable for representing categorical data such as the distribution of media influence across different media types, as it allows for easy comparison of frequencies.

It ensures every individual has an equal chance of being selected.

It reduces the cost of conducting the survey.

It guarantees accurate results.

It allows for the collection of qualitative data.

Correct Answer: A

Solution:

Random sampling ensures that every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected, which helps in obtaining a representative sample.

Variable

Attribute

Constant

Quantitative Data

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

An attribute is a qualitative characteristic that cannot be measured.

Correlation

Standard Deviation

Mean

Median

Correct Answer: C

Solution:

The Mean is a measure of central tendency used to calculate the average value of a data set.

Conducting personal interviews

Mailing surveys

Using secondary data from reports

Email surveys

Correct Answer: C

Solution:

Secondary data is not collected through primary methods such as interviews or surveys. It is data that has already been collected and is available from other sources.

Correlation

Standard Deviation

Mean

Range

Correct Answer: A

Solution:

Correlation is used to determine the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables, such as advertisement spending and sales increase.

Random Sampling

Census Method

Structured Questionnaire

Secondary Data

Correct Answer: C

Solution:

A structured questionnaire is effective for collecting specific information from a target group, such as the middle-income group, to understand their preferences.

Chronological Classification

Spatial Classification

Qualitative Classification

Quantitative Classification

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

Spatial Classification is based on geographical location.

Sampling Error

Non-Sampling Error

Bias

Variance

Correct Answer: A

Solution:

Sampling Error is the numerical difference between the sample estimate and the true population parameter.

Frequency distribution

Correlation analysis

Time series analysis

Weighted average

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

Correlation analysis is used to determine the relationship between two variables, such as media exposure and consumer purchasing patterns.

Random Sampling

Convenience Sampling

Judgmental Sampling

Snowball Sampling

Correct Answer: A

Solution:

Random sampling ensures that every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected, making it the most representative sampling method.

Correlation coefficient

Mean

Standard deviation

Mode

Correct Answer: A

Solution:

The correlation coefficient is used to determine the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables, in this case, media influence and product sales.

Sampling Bias

Non-response

Error in Data Acquisition

All of the above

Correct Answer: D

Solution:

Non-sampling errors include sampling bias, non-response, and errors in data acquisition, all of which can affect the accuracy of the data collected.

Range

Class Interval

Frequency

Decile

Correct Answer: A

Solution:

The range is the difference between the maximum and minimum values of a variable.

Mean

Mode

Median

Range

Correct Answer: C

Solution:

The median is the measure of central tendency that represents the middle value of a data set when it is arranged in ascending order.

Correlation analysis

Frequency distribution

Tally marking

Range calculation

Correct Answer: A

Solution:

Correlation analysis is used to determine the relationship between two variables, such as income level and brand preference, by quantifying the degree to which they are related.

Census Method

Sample Survey Method

Random Sampling

Structured Questionnaire

Correct Answer: A

Solution:

The Census Method involves collecting data from every individual in a population, ensuring complete coverage.

Class Interval

Class Mark

Class Frequency

Class Midpoint

Correct Answer: C

Solution:

Class Frequency refers to the number of observations in a class.

Mean

Mode

Median

Standard Deviation

Correct Answer: A

Solution:

The mean is the most appropriate measure of central tendency to calculate the average monthly expenditure on toothpaste, as it considers all data points.

Seasonality

Cyclicity

Trend

Random Variation

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

Cyclicity refers to periodicity in data variation with a time period of more than one year.

Convenience sampling

Random sampling

Judgmental sampling

Quota sampling

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

Random sampling ensures that every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected, reducing bias in the survey results.

A distribution with one mode

A distribution with two mode values

A distribution with more than two modes

A distribution with no mode

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

A bimodal distribution is a distribution that has two mode values.

Number of family members

Monthly income

Brand of toothpaste used

Type of media influence

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

Monthly income is a continuous variable as it can take any numerical value within a range, unlike discrete variables like the number of family members.

Secondary Method

Primary Method

Tertiary Method

Qualitative Method

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

The Primary Method of data collection involves using a questionnaire or an interview schedule.

Exclusive Method

Inclusive Method

Random Sampling

Systematic Sampling

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

The inclusive method includes observations equal to the upper class limit within that class.

Spatial classification

Qualitative classification

Chronological classification

Quantitative classification

Correct Answer: C

Solution:

Chronological classification is used to organize data based on time, such as years, months, or days.

Pie chart

Line graph

Bar diagram

Histogram

Correct Answer: C

Solution:

A bar diagram is suitable for representing categorical data such as the influence of different media on consumer behavior, showing the magnitude of influence for each category.

The difference between the upper and lower class limits

The number of observations in a class

The middle value of a class

The sum of all class frequencies

Correct Answer: C

Solution:

The class mark is the middle value of a class and is calculated as the average of the upper and lower class limits.

Random Sampling

Questionnaire

Frequency Distribution

Tally Marking

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

A questionnaire is a list of questions prepared by an investigator on the subject of enquiry.

Every individual has an equal chance of being selected

Only individuals from urban areas are selected

Data is collected from all individuals in a population

It is based on the convenience of the researcher

Correct Answer: A

Solution:

Random sampling ensures that every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected, reducing bias.

Classification based on time

Classification based on geographical location

Classification based on frequency

Classification based on qualitative attributes

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

Spatial classification organizes data based on geographical location, such as regions or areas.

High cost

Time-consuming

Sampling error

Non-representative data

Correct Answer: C

Solution:

Sampling error is a potential drawback of the sample survey method as it arises from the difference between the sample estimate and the true population parameter.

Bar diagram

Pie chart

Histogram

Line graph

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

A pie chart is best suited for representing proportions of a whole, such as the proportion of consumers influenced by different types of media.

Mean

Median

Mode

Range

Correct Answer: D

Solution:

Range is a measure of dispersion, not central tendency. Measures of central tendency include Mean, Median, and Mode.

Using data from previous research studies

Conducting interviews with consumers

Referencing government publications

Utilizing data from online databases

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

Conducting interviews with consumers is a primary data collection method as it involves collecting firsthand information directly from the source.

Using a structured questionnaire with closed-ended questions

Relying on secondary data from previous studies

Analyzing data from online consumer reviews

Using a random sampling method from existing databases

Correct Answer: A

Solution:

Using a structured questionnaire with closed-ended questions allows for the systematic collection of primary data directly from respondents, ensuring that the survey is tailored to the specific research objectives.

Rural households

Urban households

Middle-income families

All toothpaste consumers

Correct Answer: D

Solution:

To study the impact of advertisements on toothpaste sales, all toothpaste consumers should be considered to get a comprehensive view of the influence across different demographics.

Correlation analysis

Frequency distribution

Range

Weighted average

Correct Answer: A

Solution:

Correlation analysis is used to determine the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables, such as advertisement exposure and product sales.

Regression Analysis

Chi-Square Test

Correlation Coefficient

T-Test

Correct Answer: C

Solution:

The Correlation Coefficient is used to determine the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables, such as television influence and toothpaste sales.

Range

Standard deviation

Mean

Correlation

Correct Answer: C

Solution:

The mean is the most appropriate measure of central tendency to analyze the average monthly expenditure on toothpaste among households.

Range

Mean

Median

Mode

Correct Answer: A

Solution:

The range is defined as the difference between the maximum and minimum values of a variable.

Random Sampling

Census Method

Stratified Sampling

Convenience Sampling

Correct Answer: A

Solution:

Random Sampling ensures that every individual has an equal chance of being selected.

To collect data from the entire population

To collect data from a representative set of individuals

To ensure no sampling error occurs

To classify data based on geographical location

Correct Answer: B

Solution:

The sample survey method involves collecting observations from a representative set of individuals, known as the sample, to infer conclusions about the entire population.

True or False

Correct Answer: True

Solution:

Secondary data is often used when there is a paucity of time, money, and manpower resources, and the information is easily available.

Correct Answer: True

Solution:

Secondary data is used when there is a scarcity of time, money, and manpower resources, and when the information is easily available.

Correct Answer: False

Solution:

A structured questionnaire consists of closed-ended questions, where alternative possible answers are provided.

Correct Answer: True

Solution:

The range is defined as the difference between the maximum and minimum values of a variable.

Correct Answer: False

Solution:

A sample survey method involves collecting data from a representative set of individuals, not the entire population.

Correct Answer: True

Solution:

Random sampling is a method where every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected as an informant.

Correct Answer: True

Solution:

The excerpt indicates that television is a significant medium through which consumers learn about products, highlighting the media's influence.

Correct Answer: False

Solution:

The census method requires observations to be taken on all the individuals in a population, not just a sample.

Correct Answer: True

Solution:

The range is defined as the difference between the maximum and minimum values of a variable.

Correct Answer: False

Solution:

In the exclusive method, an observation equal to the upper class limit is not included in that class but is put in the class above.

Correct Answer: False

Solution:

The census method involves collecting data from all individuals in the population, not just a sample.

Correct Answer: True

Solution:

A frequency curve is the graph of a frequency distribution where class frequencies are plotted against class marks.

Correct Answer: False

Solution:

Media plays a significant role in influencing consumer behavior, as evidenced by the impact of advertisements on consumer preferences.

Correct Answer: False

Solution:

A census method involves collecting data from all individuals in the population, not just a sample.

Correct Answer: False

Solution:

A bimodal distribution has exactly two mode values.

Correct Answer: False

Solution:

A bimodal distribution has exactly two mode values, whereas a multimodal distribution has more than two modes.

Correct Answer: False

Solution:

Secondary data is not collected directly by the researcher but is obtained from existing sources like books, reports, and databases.

Correct Answer: True

Solution:

Frequency distribution is a summary of how often different values occur within a dataset, organized into classes.

Correct Answer: False

Solution:

Secondary data is used when there is a lack of time, money, and manpower, but it may not always be as accurate as primary data.

Correct Answer: True

Solution:

Random sampling is a method in which every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected as an informant.

Correct Answer: True

Solution:

A frequency curve is the graph of a frequency distribution, plotting class frequencies against class marks.

Correct Answer: True

Solution:

A structured questionnaire is defined as consisting of closed-ended questions, where alternative possible answers are provided for the respondent to choose from.

Correct Answer: False

Solution:

A structured questionnaire consists of closed-ended questions, where alternative possible answers are provided.

Correct Answer: False

Solution:

The census method requires observations to be taken on all individuals in the population, not just a sample.

Correct Answer: True

Solution:

A structured questionnaire is defined as having closed-ended questions with provided alternative answers.

Correct Answer: True

Solution:

Measures of central tendency, such as mean, median, and mode, are used to summarize a set of data by identifying the central position within that set.

Correct Answer: False

Solution:

In the exclusive method, observations equal to the upper class limit are not included in the class but are placed in the next class.

Correct Answer: True

Solution:

A variable is a quantity used to measure an attribute, which can take different values in different situations.

Use of Statistical Tools

AI Learning Assistant

Summary

Chapter 8: Use of Statistical Tools

Summary

Key Formulas/Definitions

Learning Objectives

Common Mistakes/Exam Tips

Important Diagrams

Suggested Projects

Learning Objectives

Detailed Notes

Use of Statistical Tools

Introduction

Steps Towards Making a Project

Identifying a Problem or Area of Study

Choice of Target Group

Collection of Data

Organisation and Presentation of Data

Key Statistical Terms

Analysis and Interpretation

Sample Project Example

Conclusion

Exam Tips & Common Mistakes

Common Mistakes and Exam Tips

Common Pitfalls

Tips for Success

Practice & Assessment

Multiple Choice Questions

Q1.A researcher wants to analyze the variability in the monthly expenditure on toothpaste among different households. Which statistical measure should be used?

Correct Answer: C

Q2.What is the primary purpose of using statistical tools in economic activities?

Correct Answer: A

Q3.In the context of statistical data collection, which method is best suited when time, money, and manpower resources are limited, but the information is readily available?

Correct Answer: B

Q4.Which of the following methods involves collecting data from every individual in a population?

Correct Answer: B

Q5.In a study on consumer preferences for toothpaste, which statistical measure would best describe the most commonly used brand?

Correct Answer: C

Q6.If you want to classify data based on time, which method would you use?

Correct Answer: C

Q7.What is a structured questionnaire?

Correct Answer: C

Q8.When preparing a structured questionnaire for a survey on consumer preferences, which type of questions should be predominantly used?

Correct Answer: B

Q9.Which method involves the use of a questionnaire to collect primary data?

Correct Answer: C

Q10.What does the term 'range' refer to in statistics?

Correct Answer: B

Q11.In a study of consumer preferences for toothpaste, what would be the best method to ensure a representative sample of the population?

Correct Answer: B

Q12.In the context of statistical analysis, what does 'relative frequency' refer to?

Correct Answer: C

Q13.What does the term 'sampling error' refer to?

Correct Answer: B

Q14.Which of the following best describes the term 'sampling error'?

Correct Answer: C

Q15.A company wants to understand the consumer preferences for toothpaste ingredients. Which data collection method would provide the most detailed qualitative insights?

Correct Answer: B

Q16.What is the primary objective of using statistical tools in economic analysis?

Correct Answer: B

Q17.When designing a questionnaire for a survey on toothpaste preferences, which of the following should be considered to ensure effective data collection?

Correct Answer: B

Q18.Which of the following best describes a structured questionnaire?

Correct Answer: B

Q19.What is the term for the frequency of a class as a proportion of the total frequency?

Correct Answer: B

Q20.Which of the following is a method of sampling where every individual has an equal chance of being selected?

Correct Answer: A

Q21.Which of the following is an example of a discrete variable?

Correct Answer: A

Q22.What is the main purpose of using a structured questionnaire in data collection?

Correct Answer: B

Q23.In a frequency distribution, what is the term for the middle value of a class?

Correct Answer: B

Q24.A researcher is conducting a study on the influence of media on consumer behavior. Which statistical diagram would best represent the distribution of media influence across different media types?

Correct Answer: B

Q25.What is the main advantage of using random sampling in a survey?

Correct Answer: A

Q26.Which of the following is a characteristic that cannot be measured and is qualitative in nature?